Evidence Synthesis in the Social Sciences

P: Planning

The systematic review methods are generally decided before conducting it.

I: Identifying 

Searching for studies that match the preset criteria in a systematic manner.

E: Evaluating

Sort all retrieved articles (included or excluded) and assess the risk of bias for each included study.

C: Collecting/combining 

Each study is coded with a preset form, either qualitatively or quantitatively, and synthesizes data.

E: Explaining 

Place results of synthesis into context, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the studies.

S: Summarizing

The report presents a clear and transparent description of the methods and results.

Source: Foster, M. J., & Jewell, S. T. (Eds.). (2022). Piecing together systematic reviews and other evidence syntheses. Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group. 

Developing a Research Question

• Identify a topic of interest to you. What motivates you about this topic? What might a systematic review of this topic accomplish?
• Read other reviews. Search for and read existing systematic reviews on your topic. What is already known? Has your question been asked and answered? Are you satisfied with those answers, or do you think another review is warranted? Are there other related questions that could be addressed in a new systematic review?
• How will a new review on this topic address current gaps in knowledge? Why is it needed? How will it be different from or improve upon prior reviews?

A well-formulated question for a systematic review should be:

S - Specific 

A - Answerable

M - Contains measurable constructs 

P - Practical (relevant for policy, practice, or research)  

L - Logical (based on theory or sound logic) 

E - Empirical (answers can be obtained from observable evidence) 

Source: Littell, J. H., & Valentine, J. C. Unit 2: Problem formulation. In J. C. Valentine, J. H. Littell, & S. Young (Eds.), Systematic reviews and meta-analysis: A Campbell Collaboration online course. Open Learning Initiative, 2023. 

Frameworks

Research question frameworks are used by researchers to break down their research topic into key concepts, helping them develop effective research questions. The research question should be presented clearly and systematically to help the reader identify the components of the study. The PICO format is a widely used framework to achieve this. 

PICO 

P - Problem (or Population or Patient)

I - Intervention (or Exposure)

C - Comparison

O - Outcomes

SPICE is also well-suited to the social sciences:

SPICE 

S - Setting

P - Perspective

I - Intervention or Phenomena of Interest,

C - Comparison

E - Evaluation

While the PICO and SPICE frameworks are highly effective, some research questions may not fit neatly into them. This Library Guide from the University of Maryland shares additional frameworks. 

Is the Question New?

To avoid duplication of effort, ensure that the research question has not been previously addressed through a systematic review. Researchers can check the following sources for reviews and/or registered protocols to determine this (this list is not exhaustive):

• Campbell Collaboration for social interventions. 
• PROSPERO or Joanna Briggs Institute for preregistered systematic review protocols in health and social care.
• Open Science Framework is one of the more common places for protocols.
• 3iE is an international initiative for Impact Evaluation that supports studies and reviews examining what works in international development in low- and middle-income countries.
• EPPI conducts systematic reviews in education, including Initial Teacher Education (ITE), Health Promotion, public health, social welfare, and international development. 

If one exists, there may still be a reason for you to write your own, such as:

• The existing review is old, new research has been published, and an update is needed.
• The quality of the existing review is methodologically suspect. To evaluate quality, critical appraisal tools such as the JBI "Checklist for Systematic Reviews and Research Synthesis" can be used.
• The existing systematic review focuses on outcomes or uses eligibility criteria different from those your systematic review will use.